Abstract
This chapter discusses the concept of internal environmental conflicts from the perspective of negative impacts caused by renewable energy projects in Brazil and Germany. It identifies the significant positive and negative effects based on a literature review to show that the pathway to reducing GHG emissions to protect the climate requires technical and economic feasibility and the prevention of environmental impacts. First, this chapter summarizes the technical aspects and co-benefits of renewable energy sources other than climate protection. It then analyzes the adverse effects of solar, wind, hydropower, and biomass plants in Brazil and Germany, together with connected impacts (energy transmission and storage). Finally, to achieve a conceptual reflection of internal environmental conflicts, this chapter discusses them in the legal analysis, paving the way to find legal solutions in concrete decision-making. Because environmental impacts are numerous and include different areas, the example of the internal conflicts in law is limited to biodiversity effects.
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Notes
- 1.
Gal (2014), pp. 78–98.
- 2.
Pereira et al. (2017), pp. 50–65.
- 3.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) (2021).
- 4.
In Northern Germany, for example, when the infrastructure is ready, the installation of the turbine takes up to one month only, according to the turbine operator information, provided to the author during the 2018 IKEM Summer Academy, which took place in Greifswald and Berlin, in July 2018.
- 5.
To assess hydropower generation in the world see International Hydropower Association (IHA).
- 6.
Kaunda et al. (2012), p. 11.
- 7.
Biofuels are liquid fuels produced from biomass, mostly used for transportation. Ethanol, for example, is produced from grains and other agricultural products (sugar cane, corn, sorghum) and biodiesel is made of vegetable oils, fats or greases. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2022). Biofuels are also called “agrofuels” to consider their negative effects in the concept. See Ferreira and Leite (2010).
- 8.
UN Environment Program (UNEP) (2009), p. 25.
- 9.
- 10.
World Bioenergy Association (WBA) (2021).
- 11.
Dincer (2000), p. 158.
- 12.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2022).
- 13.
Dincer (2000), p. 171.
- 14.
Dincer (2000), p. 171.
- 15.
Pring et al. (2010), p. 32.
- 16.
Hernandez et al. (2014), pp. 767–773.
- 17.
Tsoutsos et al. (2005), pp. 292–294.
- 18.
Jaber (2013), p. 252.
- 19.
Jaber (2013), pp. 251–252.
- 20.
Kaunda et al. (2012), p. 11.
- 21.
Chenal et al. (2009), p. 257.
- 22.
Chenal et al. (2009), p. 30.
- 23.
Labeyrie (2009), pp. 397–426.
- 24.
Pring et al. (2010), p. 15.
- 25.
Arboit et al. (2013), pp. 155–168.
- 26.
Scheidel and Sorman (2012), p. 588.
- 27.
Scheidel and Sorman (2012), p. 591.
- 28.
About land rush and the conflicts about energy and land, especially biofuels, see Deininger (2011).
- 29.
Tsoutsos et al. (2005), pp. 292–294.
- 30.
Fraunhofer ISE (2021).
- 31.
Fthenakis and Kim (2011), pp. 1609–1628.
- 32.
Oliveira AS (2017). Oliveira assessed the productive process of PV cells in China or in China and Brazil, considering as impact categories: energy consumption; water consumption; global warming potential; acidification potential; eutrophication potential; human toxicity potential; and fossil abiotic depletion.
- 33.
Hernandez et al. (2014), pp. 769–770.
- 34.
Tsoutsos et al. (2005), pp. 290–295.
- 35.
Cabral et al. (2013), p. 4.
- 36.
Gonçalves (2016).
- 37.
More than 70% of water heating systems use electricity as heating source, followed by 6% of gas, and only 0.4% solar heating, almost all of it to operate electric showers. For those reasons, and because of the low efficiency of the conversion of electricity to heat, studies explore the potential of solar heating in Brazil, to diminish the electricity pick from the grid between 18h and 21h. See Gonçalves (2016), pp. 59–60.
- 38.
Arantegui and Jäger-Waldau (2018), p. 2465.
- 39.
See Böhringer et al. (2017), pp. 189–209.
- 40.
See Bayer et al. (2018), pp. 129–141.
- 41.
- 42.
From 1991, the São Paulo state started the electrification of restricted protected areas with photovoltaic energy. One program (“Eldorado Program”) was partially funded from the German government. See Baschiera (2016), p. 45.
- 43.
Pinho et al. (2008).
- 44.
Ribeiro (2015).
- 45.
Article 3, I of Decree n. 6.040/2007 defines traditional people and communities as culturally differentiated groups that recognize themselves as such, have their own forms of social organization, occupy and use territories and natural resources as a condition for their cultural, social, religious, ancestral and economic reproduction, using knowledge, innovations and practices generated and transmitted by tradition. See Decree No. 6.040/2007, Article 3 (I).
- 46.
Baschiera (2016).
- 47.
Rosa (2007), pp. 369–370.
- 48.
Fraunhofer ISE (2021), p. 40.
- 49.
Fraunhofer ISE (2021), pp. 47, 50.
- 50.
Fraunhofer ISE (2021), p. 35.
- 51.
Fraunhofer ISE (2021), pp. 38–39.
- 52.
Juwi (2022).
- 53.
Juwi (2009), p. 2.
- 54.
Thin-film solar cell is a solar cell made by depositing one or more ultra-thin layers or thin-film of photovoltaic material on a substrate (glass, plastic, or metal). See PVthin (2022).
- 55.
Juwi (2022).
- 56.
Juwi (2009), p. 2.
- 57.
The Lieberose Solar Park is also considered an example of “civil reuse of former military grounds”. See Juwi (2009), p. 2. The decontaminated area was one of eastern Germany’s most extensive military training facilities. See International Energy Agency (IEA), p. 57.
- 58.
Agentur für Erneuerbare Energien (AEE) (2010), p. 4.
- 59.
Agentur für Erneuerbare Energien (AEE) (2010), p. 14.
- 60.
Agentur für Erneuerbare Energien (AEE) (2010), p. 12.
- 61.
Wang and Wang (2015), pp. 440–441.
- 62.
Wang and Wang (2015), pp. 440–441.
- 63.
Noise pollution is generated by mechanical and electrical parts (mechanical noise), and the interaction of blades with air (aerodynamic noise). See Jaber (2013), p. 254.
- 64.
Jaber (2013), p. 439.
- 65.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2022).
- 66.
Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats (EUROBATS), Article II.
- 67.
Rodrigues et al. (2015).
- 68.
Bailey et al. (2014), pp. 1–9.
- 69.
Bailey et al. (2014), p. 9.
- 70.
Hirsch and Sovacool (2013), p. 707.
- 71.
Hirsch and Sovacool (2013), p. 707.
- 72.
Hirsch and Sovacool (2013), p. 707.
- 73.
International Energy Agency (IEA) (2021).
- 74.
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) (2021).
- 75.
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) (2021).
- 76.
According to Santos, there are not many information and conflicts in Rio Grande do Sul, when compared to the Northeast states, because of different ecosystems and affected groups. In Rio Grande do Sul, most of the wind turbines are installed in medium to large cattle farms, whose owners have property rights on the land and greater income and access to information. Some conflicts were related to the wind complex “Complexo Eólico Ventos do Farol”, because of their location on dunes. Santos (2014), p. 4.
- 77.
Associação Brasileira de Energia Eólica (ABEEólica) (2021).
- 78.
Gorayeb and Brannstrom (2016), p. 106.
- 79.
Hofstaetter (2016), p. 3.
- 80.
Hofstaetter (2016), p. 3.
- 81.
Hofstaetter (2016), pp. 110–116.
- 82.
There are wind turbines located only 200 m from houses in Ceará. See Brannstrom et al. (2017), p. 65.
- 83.
Soares (2016).
- 84.
Meireles (2011), p. 2.
- 85.
Meireles (2011), pp. 2–3.
- 86.
Meireles (2011), p. 2.
- 87.
Santos considers Cumbe, with 71 archaeological occurrences in the Aracatí municipality, an emblematic example of how renewable energies can be extremely wrong implemented. See Santos (2014).
- 88.
Meireles (2011), p. 16.
- 89.
Hofstaetter (2016), p. 107.
- 90.
Arribaçãs are an endangered birds species in Brazil.
- 91.
Hofstaetter (2016), p. 82.
- 92.
Hofstaetter (2016), p. 42.
- 93.
Gorayeb and Brannstrom (2016), pp. 106–109.
- 94.
Rodrigues et al. (2015), p. 124.
- 95.
Deutsche Bundestag (2013).
- 96.
Lehnert et al. (2014), p. 1.
- 97.
Lehnert et al. (2014), p. 1.
- 98.
Länderarbeitsgemeinschaft der Vogelschutzwarten (LAG VSW) (2014), p. 5.
- 99.
Länderarbeitsgemeinschaft der Vogelschutzwarten (LAG VSW) (2014), p. 5.
- 100.
Rodrigues et al. (2015).
- 101.
For instance, in Schleswig-Holstein, the Vernunftkraft Schleswig-Holstein e.V reports that the discourse of climate protection initiated the installation of many wind turbines in the region, which became a business caring only about private interests, in disregard of nature protection. See Vernunftkraft Schleswig-Holstein e.V (2022).
- 102.
Statista (2011).
- 103.
Agentur für Erneuerbare Energien (AEE) (2017).
- 104.
To identify social acceptance, a case study was conducted in the communities of Nossen and Zschadraβ, in Saxony. It questioned if a co-owned wind farm would increase social acceptance of wind turbines located in the region, and wind energy in general. Aside from the differences in both communities, the conclusions confirmed that community co-ownership leads to a higher level of acceptance than a commercial wind farm. It also confirmed that it leads to a more positive attitude towards wind energy in general. Concerning an increased “energy citizenship” and more awareness of environmental problems and energy-related issues, the conclusion shows indications towards it, even though different between communities. It identified that climate change was taken more seriously, and the co-ownership increased concerns about energy production and consumption. Regarding local empowerment, the involvement of the mayor and other local authorities enhancing their feeling of control over their territory and energy production. See Musall and Kuik (2011), pp. 3253–3254.
- 105.
Moretto et al. (2012), p. 141.
- 106.
Kaunda et al. (2012), p. 11.
- 107.
Moretto et al. (2012), p. 141.
- 108.
- 109.
Moretto et al. (2012), p. 141.
- 110.
UHE is the hydropower plant that have the following characteristics and the respective granting regimes: (I) installed capacity between 5000 and 50,000 kW, provided that they are not classified as small hydropower plants, and are subject to authorization; (II) installed capacity over 50,000 kW, subject to concession; and (III)—regardless of the installed power, have been granted a concession or authorization. See ANEEL Normative Resolution 875/2020, Article 6.
- 111.
International Hydropower Association (IHA) (2021).
- 112.
International Hydropower Association (IHA) (2021).
- 113.
International Hydropower Association (IHA) (2021).
- 114.
Following the historical problems with people displacement and lack of public participation, the Movement of People Affected by Dams (Movimento dos Atingidos por Barragens—MAB) was created in the 1980s to help, organize, and empower the affected population. It is one of Brazil’s most significant and well-organized social movements, which brings national and international attention to the problems created by hydropower plants. See Movimento dos Atingidos por Barragens (MAB) (2022).
- 115.
Itaipu means “the singing stone” in Tupi (one of the native Brazilian languages). See Itaipu (2022a).
- 116.
The construction of the dam solved a diplomatic impasse between both countries, which disputed the area since the nineteenth century. The dam covers the disputed border area, in the Itaipu Treaty of 1973. See Itaipu (2022a).
- 117.
Santos (2006), pp. 38–40.
- 118.
Souza (2011), pp. 141–167.
- 119.
Itaipu (2022b).
- 120.
Itaipu (2022c).
- 121.
Itaipu (2022d).
- 122.
Itaipu (2022e).
- 123.
Itaipu (2022f).
- 124.
Santos (2006), p. 33.
- 125.
Santos (2006), p. 34.
- 126.
See Instituto Centro de Vida (ICV) (2017). The indigenous ritual and festival Quarup was organized to show opposition to the construction of the dam and to say goodbye to the place. Santos (2006), pp. 79–91. A total of 8000 families, 42,000 people, including 80 families remaining from the last Guaranis (indigenous people) were displaced from their lands without proper compensation and having nowhere to go. Available in the “Carta Protesto do Quarup das Sete Quedas”, or protest letter from Sete Quedas Quarup, See Santos (2006), pp. 133–134.
- 127.
Warren (1995), pp. 295–296.
- 128.
Ziober and Zanirato (2014), pp. 69–72.
- 129.
Brandão (2010), p. 54.
- 130.
- 131.
Andrade and Mattei (2013), pp. 9–36.
- 132.
Portal Brasileiro de Dados Abertos (2022).
- 133.
Ministério de Minas e Energia (MME) (2016).
- 134.
Jirau Energia (2022).
- 135.
Santo Antônio Energia (2022).
- 136.
See the documentary Entre a cheia e o vazio (Between the flood and the void). It was directed by Lou-Ann Kleppa and produced by the Social Mapping as a Territorial Management Tool against Deforestation and Devastation - Rondônia Center and Federal University of Rondônia (Mapeamento Social como Instrumento de Gestão Territorial contra o Desmatamento e a Devastação – Núcleo Rondônia e Universidade Federal de Rondônia—UNIR). It is available online at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFEputOFFqQ. See also the documentary Jirau e Santo Antônio: relatos de uma guerra amazônica (Jirau and Santo Antônio: stories of an Amazonian war) produced by MAB. It is available online at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFQ11fri3vs.
- 137.
Plataforma Dhesca Brasil (2011).
- 138.
- 139.
Vieira (2015), pp. 25–41.
- 140.
Norte Energia (2022).
- 141.
Santos and Hernandez (2009).
- 142.
Santos and Hernandez (2009), p. 11.
- 143.
Brazilian Federal Constitution, Articles 231 and 232; Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169), Article (6) (1) (a).
- 144.
Because of the lack of consultation and the violation of the ILO Convention No. 169, Brazil was taken in 2011 to the Interamerican Commission on Human Rights (ICHR). The ICHR decided preliminarily requiring the interruption of the construction, but the country ignored it and started demoralizing and boycotting the ICHR, reason why the Commission come back on its decision. The case was presented again in 2015. See Vieira (2015), p. 175; and Interamerican Commission on Human Rights (ICHR) MC 382/10. As many reports inform, some communities around the Belo Monte, similar to what happens with wind energy, do not have access to electricity. This questions the whole discourse and the base of the construction of the power plant. Belo Monte, for instance, is arguably built to provide electricity to Belo Sun, a mining company. A WWF-Brazil report of 2006 indicates that Brazil could reduce up to 38% of its electricity demand projected to 2020 adopting measures related to energy efficiency of the existing power plants and reducing waste in the electricity distribution system, which could avoid the generation equivalent to 14 UHE Belo Monte or 6 Itaipu. WWF-Brasil (2006), pp. 12–14.
- 145.
PCH is the hydropower plant with the following characteristics: (I) installed capacity between 5000 and 30,000 kW; and (II) reservoir area of up to 13 km2, excluding the regular riverbed. CHG is a hydropower plant with capacity equal or less than 5000 kW. See ANEEL Normative Resolution No. 875/2020, Article 5, (I) and (II).
- 146.
Bermann (2007), pp. 150–151.
- 147.
Umweltbundesamt (UBA) (2003), p. 3.
- 148.
Spänhoff (2014), p. 519.
- 149.
Spänhoff (2014), pp. 519–522.
- 150.
Spänhoff (2014), p. 522.
- 151.
Spänhoff (2014), p. 523.
- 152.
The EU Water Framework Directive refers to Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of October 23, 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy.
- 153.
Spänhoff (2014), p. 523.
- 154.
Hessisches Ministerium für Wirtschaft, Energie, Verkehr und Landesentwicklung (2016), p. 25.
- 155.
Hessisches Ministerium für Wirtschaft, Energie, Verkehr und Landesentwicklung (2016), pp. 25–28.
- 156.
Pring et al. (2010), pp. 26–27.
- 157.
Gasparatos et al. (2017), p. 166.
- 158.
- 159.
Haddad et al. (2017).
- 160.
Scudeleti and Ferreira (2014), pp. 67–85.
- 161.
Pugliese et al. (2017), pp. 146–156.
- 162.
Liboni and Cezarino (2012), pp. 202–230.
- 163.
Paraiso (2013).
- 164.
The Brazilian Criminal Code defines the conduct of reducing someone to a conditoin analogous to slavery, either by subjecting him/her to forced labor, exahaustive working hours, degrading working conditions, either by restricting his/her locomotion by any means due to a debt contracted with the employer or agent. See Decree-Law No. 2.848/1940, Article 149.
- 165.
- 166.
Schweier et al. (2017), pp. 1207–1221.
- 167.
Enertrag (2022).
- 168.
Deutsche Welle (2018).
- 169.
Information provided to the author on the site visit during the 2018 IKEM Summer Academy, which took place in Greifswald and Berlin, in July 2018.
- 170.
Britz and Delzeit (2013), pp. 1268–1275.
- 171.
Britz and Delzeit (2013), pp. 1268–1275.
- 172.
Gutzler et al. (2015), p. 515.
- 173.
Global Nature Fund (GNF), Zentrum für Sonnenenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg (ZSW) (2011), p. 54.
- 174.
Stadtwerke Bremen (SWB) (2022).
- 175.
- 176.
Albadi and El-Saadany (2010), pp. 627–632.
- 177.
Sovacool (2009), p. 288.
- 178.
Hernandez et al. (2014), p. 771.
- 179.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2022).
- 180.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2006).
- 181.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2006).
- 182.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2007).
- 183.
RF remain in the IARC classification list as group 2B (“possibly carcinogenic to humans”), but static and ELF are classified in group 3 (“not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (2022).
- 184.
A recent study concluded the “existing evidence for an association between magnetic fields and childhood leukaemia” is slightly strengthened, despite the extremely unlikely result that the exposure to magnetic fields during the year of birth is the whole cause of the childhood leukaemia. Kroll et al. (2010), pp. 1122–1127.
- 185.
Ahmadi et al. (2010), pp. 181–188.
- 186.
Sovacool (2009), pp. 288–289.
- 187.
Sovacool (2009), p. 295.
- 188.
Sovacool (2009), p. 295.
- 189.
Fraunhofer ISE (2021), p. 33.
- 190.
Fraunhofer ISE (2021), p. 33.
- 191.
Marbán and Valdés-Solís (2007), pp. 1625–1637.
- 192.
Mehmeti et al. (2018), p. 16.
- 193.
Akinyele et al. (2017), pp. 34–35.
- 194.
Kloepfer (2016), p. 1629.
- 195.
Law No. 12.187/2009, Article 11 single paragraph.
- 196.
Decree No. 9.578/2018, Article 19 (III).
- 197.
Law No. 9.478/1997, Article 1 (XVIII).
- 198.
Law No. 12.187/2009, Article 4 (I).
- 199.
Law No. 12.187/2009, Article 4 (II).
- 200.
Law No. 12.187/2009, Article 4 (VII).
- 201.
Renewable Energy Sources Act: EEG, Article 1 (1).
- 202.
Gärditz (2010), p. 214.
- 203.
Gärditz (2010), p. 214.
- 204.
Planetary boundaries are limits that demonstrate a safe operational space for humanity. They set nine limits within which humanity can continue developing. Those limits are (1) stratospheric ozone depletion; (2) loss of biosphere integrity (biodiversity loss and extinctions); (3) chemical pollution and the release of novel entities; (4) climate change; (5) ocean acidification; (6) freshwater consumption and the global hydrological cycle; (7) land system change; (8) nitrogen and phosphorus flows to the biosphere and oceans; and (9) atmospheric aerosol loading. Scientists consider biosphere integrity (genetic diversity), together with biogeochemical flows (nitrogen cycle) the most critical limits. See Rockström et al. (2009), pp. 1–33; Stockholm Resilience Centre (2022).
- 205.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) framework identifies the five drivers of ecosystem change and biodiversity loss: habitat loss/change, pollution, overexploitation, climate change, and the introduction of invasive species. It also analyzed the impacts for different RE, including solar, wind, hydropower, and bioenergy, concluding that all sources are directly or indirectly associated with each of the mentioned drivers, depending on the specific technologies and location. See Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005); Gasparatos et al. (2017).
- 206.
Fitzgerald et al. (2018), pp. 104–112.
- 207.
Rodrigues et al. (2015), p. 12.
- 208.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
- 209.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
- 210.
Law No. 5.197/1967, Article 1.
- 211.
See note 160.
- 212.
Law No. 11.284/2006, Article 2 (I).
- 213.
Law No. 11.428/2006, Articles 6 and 7 (I).
- 214.
Law No. 12.651/2012, Article 1-A (I).
- 215.
Law No. 12.651/2012, Article 3 (II) and (III). See Sect. 5.2.4.2.
- 216.
Federal Nature Conservation Act: BNatSchG, Article 1 (1).
- 217.
Federal Nature Conservation Act: BNatSchG, Article 1 (2).
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Galbiatti Silveira, P. (2022). Internal Environmental Conflicts in the Electricity Generation from Renewable Energy Sources. In: Climate Protection and Environmental Interests in Renewable Energy Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11605-6_4
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