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The Foundation: Sexualized Violence in International Law

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Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law

Part of the book series: International Criminal Justice Series ((ICJS,volume 29))

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Abstract

Until the 1990s, sexualized violence was mostly conceptualized as an unfortunate but inevitable by-product of war. This narrative is visible in the post-World War II trials, which addressed sexualized violence only in passing and mostly failed to hold perpetrators accountable for rape and other sexualized crimes. The events during the wars in the former Yugoslavia and the genocide in Rwanda helped to shift this narrative. In recent years, conflict-related sexualized violence has received much international attention, and the international criminal legal framework has made immense progress with regard to sexualized crimes and gender sensitivity more generally. Today, sexualized violence is often conceptualized as a “weapon of war”, though this description has elicited criticism as well. This chapter portrays the factual background of conflict-related sexualized violence and its treatment under international humanitarian law, international criminal law, and international human rights law in a historical perspective. It traces the progressive developments of the international legal framework and illustrates persisting challenges, particularly with regard to its practical implementation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See e.g. Adams 2013, p 24; Askin 1997, p 1; Askin 2003b, pp 509–511; Bensouda 2007, p 401; Brownmiller 1975, pp 31–113; Chinkin 1994, pp 327–328; Copelon 1994, pp 243–245; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, pp 27–29; Haer et al. 2015, p 610; Leatherman 2011, p 2; Stiglmayer 1993, p 109; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal nos 414–420.

  2. 2.

    See generally Askin 1997, pp 12–17.

  3. 3.

    Brownmiller 1975, pp 31–113.

  4. 4.

    Ibid., p 32.

  5. 5.

    See also Askin 2013, p 19; Bensouda 2007, pp 401–402; Campanaro 2001, p 2557; Copelon 1994, p 243; Copelon 2000, p 220; Haer et al. 2015, p 610; Leatherman 2011, p 13; Seifert 1993, p 103; Stiglmayer 1993, p 109.

  6. 6.

    See Askin 1997, pp 215–217; Duggan et al. 2008, p 195.

  7. 7.

    See Copelon 2000, p 223; Jarvis and Martin Salgado 2013, p 102; Markard and Adamietz 2008, pp 257–258; Seifert 1993, p 103; Stiglmayer 1993, p 109.

  8. 8.

    See Markard and Adamietz 2008, pp 257–258. See also Anderson 2010, p 246. Regarding the general feminist critique of the public/private split, see Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000; Peters 2007, pp 217–221; von Arnauld 2006, pp 24–30.

  9. 9.

    A statement by the French prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trial of the Major War Criminals aptly illustrates the silencing of victims’ experiences. Referring to testimony of mass rape, he said: “The Tribunal will forgive me if I avoid citing the atrocious details”, International Military Tribunal, The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics v Hermann Wilhelm Göring et al., Transcripts, 1945–1946, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (1947–1949) (IMT Transcripts 1945–1946), vol 6, p 405. See also Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, p 4; Niarchos 1995, p 653.

  10. 10.

    See Askin 2004, p 16; Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, pp 1–2; Copelon 2000, p 217; Harbour 2016, p 19; Lindsey 2005, p 25; Meron 1993b, p 424.

  11. 11.

    See e.g. Adams 2013, pp 25–29; Askin 2003a, pp 305–306; Haer et al. 2015, pp 610–611.

  12. 12.

    See generally Wood 2006.

  13. 13.

    The ICC Elements of Crimes define rape as the forcible or coercive “penetration, however slight, of any part of the body of the victim or of the perpetrator with a sexual organ, or of the anal or genital opening of the victim with any object or any other part of the body”, Article 7(1)(g)-1, no. 1; Article 8(2)(b)(xxii)-1, no. 1; Article 8(2)(e)(vi)-1, no. 1. For the definition of rape as a crime under international law, see generally Adams 2013.

  14. 14.

    Brownmiller 1975.

  15. 15.

    See Gardam and Jarvis 2001, pp 25–26; Skjelsbaek 2001, pp 212–213.

  16. 16.

    See Coomaraswamy 2005, pp 55–56; Leatherman 2011, pp 47–48; Seibert-Fohr 2008, p 159; The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, p 3.

  17. 17.

    See Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3.2.1 and Chap. 6, Sect. 6.3.1.

  18. 18.

    See Chinkin 1994, p 326; Leatherman 2011, p 9; Schwarz 2019, p 64.

  19. 19.

    See Adams 2013, p 31; Askin 1997, p 16; Bock 2010, pp 137–138; Chinkin 2009, p 76; De Brouwer and Ruiz 2019, pp 170–175; Durham and O’Byrne 2010, pp 47–49; Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, pp 34–35; Grey 2019, pp 88–93; Leatherman 2011, pp 9, 46; Markard and Adamietz 2008, p 262; Myrttinen 2018, p 39; Schwarz 2019, pp 64–74; Sivakumaran 2007; United Nations Security Council 2019a, para 19; Verrall 2016, pp 313–315; Vojdik 2019, pp 97–100. Recent ICC decisions have also dealt with sexualized violence against men, see ICC, Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment, 21 March 2016, ICC-01/05-01/08 (Bemba 2016), paras 100, 631–638; ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Judgment, 8 July 2019, ICC-01/04-02/06 (Ntaganda 2019), paras 933, 940, 942.

  20. 20.

    Carpenter 2006. Similarly Schwarz 2019, p 68.

  21. 21.

    See Schwarz 2019, pp 65–67; Sivakumaran 2007, p 255.

  22. 22.

    See Askin 1997, p 16; Leatherman 2011, p 9.

  23. 23.

    See Askin 2003b, p 513; De Brouwer and Ruiz 2019, pp 190–196; Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, pp 35–36; Labenski 2019; Leatherman 2011, pp 13, 43–46.

  24. 24.

    ICTR, Prosecutor v Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, Arsène Shalom Ntahobali, Sylvain Nsabimana, Alphonse Nteziryayo, Joseph Kanyabashi and Élie Ndayambaje, Judgment and Sentence, 24 June 2011, ICTR-98-42-T; ICTR, Prosecutor v Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, Arsène Shalom Ntahobali, Sylvain Nsabimana, Alphonse Nteziryayo, Joseph Kanyabashi and Élie Ndayambaje, Appeals Judgment, 14 December 2015, ICTR-98-42-A; see also Drumbl 2013; Durham 2012, pp 265–266; Durham and O’Byrne 2010, pp 40–42; Labenski 2019, pp 58–60.

  25. 25.

    See Leatherman 2011, pp 44–46; Schwarz 2019, p 69.

  26. 26.

    See Labenski 2019, p 45.

  27. 27.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 37.

  28. 28.

    See Adams 2013, pp 31–33; Niarchos 1995, p 657.

  29. 29.

    See Boon 2000, pp 631–632; Niarchos 1995, p 657; Skjelsbaek 2001, p 222; Verrall 2016, pp 309–310.

  30. 30.

    See Adams 2013, pp 35–36; Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, p 20; Boon 2000, pp 631–632; Brownmiller 1975, p 40; Coomaraswamy 2005, p 55; Niarchos 1995, p 657; Verrall 2016, p 310.

  31. 31.

    The concept of intersectionality was introduced by Kimberle Crenshaw in her seminal article on the intersection of race and sex, see Crenshaw 1989. In the context of sexualized violence, see generally Askin 1997, pp 274–275; Markard and Adamietz 2008, p 262; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1062.

  32. 32.

    See Boon 2000, p 632; Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, pp 251–252; Grey 2019, p 51; Leatherman 2011, pp 15–16, 50–51; Skjelsbaek 2001, pp 218–223; United Nations Security Council 2018, para 12.

  33. 33.

    See Adams 2013, pp 39–41; Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, pp 252–253; Chinkin 1994, p 330; Duggan et al. 2008, p 195; Greve 2008, p 33; Haer et al. 2015, p 611; Leatherman 2011, pp 47–48; Schwarz 2019, p 58. The specific effects relating to the birth of children will be explored below, see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.3.

  34. 34.

    See Schwarz 2019, pp 56–57.

  35. 35.

    See Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, p 3; Bock 2010, pp 136–137; Schwarz 2019, pp 56–57.

  36. 36.

    See Adams 2013, pp 42–44; Bensouda 2007, p 402; Chinkin 1994, p 330; Duggan et al. 2008, p 195; Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, p 21; Folnegović-Šmalc 1993, pp 227–229; Greve 2008, p 34; Haer et al. 2015, p 611; Leatherman 2011, p 48; Niarchos 1995, p 667; United Nations Security Council 2018, para 19.

  37. 37.

    See Adams 2013, pp 44–45; Bensouda 2007, p 402; Chinkin 1994, p 329; Haer et al. 2015, p 611; Schwarz 2019, pp 61–62; Seibert-Fohr 2008, p 187. On indirect traumatization in general, see Bock 2010, pp 159–161.

  38. 38.

    See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.10.

  39. 39.

    See Marczak 2018, pp 149–150; United Nations Human Rights Council 2016, para 79. After some confusion, however, it was later clarified that this policy would not cover children born of rape, who would consequently not be welcomed into the community, see Kajjo, Yazidis Divided Over Children Born of IS Rape, VOA, 29 April 2019, https://www.voanews.com/a/yazidis-divided-over-children-born-of-islamic-state-rape/4896530.html (accessed 24 October 2020).

  40. 40.

    See George, Yazidi Women Welcomed Back to the Faith: Religious Leaders Break With Tradition, Letting Women and Girls Rejoin the Yazidi Community After Surviving Abduction, Forced Conversion and Rape, UNHCR Tracks, 15 June 2015, https://tracks.unhcr.org/2015/06/yazidi-women-welcomed-back-to-the-faith/ (accessed 24 October 2020).

  41. 41.

    See Bock 2010, p 70; Schwarz 2019, pp 58–61.

  42. 42.

    See Bock 2010, p 70.

  43. 43.

    See ibid., pp 72–73.

  44. 44.

    See Schwarz 2019, pp 59–61.

  45. 45.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014. See also Chappell 2016, pp 124–126; Oosterveld 2018, pp 453–456.

  46. 46.

    See Coomaraswamy 2005, p 55.

  47. 47.

    See Haer et al. 2015; see also Wood 2006, pp 321–323.

  48. 48.

    See Haer et al. 2015, p 614; Nordås 2013, p 2; Wood 2006, pp 307–308.

  49. 49.

    See Wood 2006, pp 308–318.

  50. 50.

    See Stiglmayer 1993, pp 109–110.

  51. 51.

    See Haer et al. 2015, p 616; Wood 2006, p 330.

  52. 52.

    See e.g. Seifert 1993, p 86.

  53. 53.

    Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, p 17.

  54. 54.

    See Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, p 19; Steinl 2018.

  55. 55.

    See Seifert 1993, p 86; Stiglmayer 1993, p 109; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal nos 421–422.

  56. 56.

    See Nordås 2013, p 2.

  57. 57.

    See Cohen 2013, p 475; Nordås 2013, p 2.

  58. 58.

    See Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3.2.1. See also Niarchos 1995, p 650.

  59. 59.

    See Brownmiller 1975, p 49; Seifert 1993, p 87.

  60. 60.

    See Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2009, p 514; Grey 2019, p 57; Vojdik 2019, pp 112–113. See also Haer et al. 2015, pp 615–616; Maxwell 2010.

  61. 61.

    Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, p 20.

  62. 62.

    Ibid., p 19. See also Steinl 2018; Vojdik 2019, p 113.

  63. 63.

    See Askin 2003b, pp 511–512; Bensouda 2007, p 402; Bock 2010, p 138; Seibert-Fohr 2008, p 160; United Nations Security Council 2017, para 8; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1063.

  64. 64.

    See Askin 2003b, pp 511–512; Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, p 253; United Nations Security Council 2019a, para 14.

  65. 65.

    See Askin 1997, p 27; Askin 2013, p 21; Bensouda 2007, p 401; Brownmiller 1975, pp 33–35.

  66. 66.

    Cohen 2013.

  67. 67.

    See ibid., p 464.

  68. 68.

    See Brownmiller 1975, pp 187–194; Cohen 2013, pp 463–464. See also Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, p 20.

  69. 69.

    See Birckenbach 1993, p 241; Seifert 1993, pp 87–88; Verrall 2016, p 310; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 425.

  70. 70.

    See Askin 2013, p 21; Brownmiller 1975, pp 38–40; Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, p 254; Markard and Adamietz 2008, p 262; Odio-Benito 2005, p 164.

  71. 71.

    See Brownmiller 1975, p 38; Chinkin 1994, p 328; Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013, p 21; Greve 2008, p 29; Grey 2019, p 56; Markard and Adamietz 2008, pp 261–262; Seifert 1993, pp 91–92; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 427. See also Schwarz 2019, pp 54–55.

  72. 72.

    See De Brouwer and Ruiz 2019, p 176; Grey 2019, pp 55–56; Vojdik 2019, p 114.

  73. 73.

    See Bock 2010, p 134; Odio-Benito 2005, p 166; Seibert-Fohr 2008, p 160; Seifert 1993, p 87; Verrall 2016, pp 311–312; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 422.

  74. 74.

    See Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, pp 16, 20; Folnegović-Šmalc 1993, p 224.

  75. 75.

    See Allen 1996; Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, pp 5–6; Chinkin 1994, p 329; MacKinnon 1994; Niarchos 1995, p 658; Russell-Brown 2003; Sharlach 2000; Stiglmayer 1993, pp 110–111; Verrall 2016, pp 310–311; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1063.

  76. 76.

    See Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2.

  77. 77.

    See Carpenter 2010, p 21; Coomaraswamy 2005, p 54; Durham and O’Byrne 2010, p 39; Verrall 2016, pp 308–309; Wood 2006, p 327. See also ICTY, Prosecutor v Zejnil Delalić, Zdravko Mucić, Hazim Delić and Esad Landžo, Judgment, 16 November 1998, IT-96-21-T (Čelebići 1998), paras 475–497.

  78. 78.

    See Askin 1997, p 16; Birckenbach 1993, pp 241–242; Folnegović-Šmalc 1993, p 224; Gaggioli 2014, p 504; Seifert 1993, p 87; Stiglmayer 1993, p 109. See also Skjelsbaek 2001, pp 224–226.

  79. 79.

    See Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2010, pp 41–50.

  80. 80.

    See Cockburn 2004; Greve 2008, p 28; Markard and Adamietz 2008, p 261; Steinl 2018; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1062; Zwingel 2002, p 178. But see also Anderson 2010, p 257, arguing that certain types of conflict-related sexualized and gender-based violence such as forced impregnations in “rape camps” and the deliberate infection of women with HIV are not part of a continuum but rather a means of war and thus a security issue instead of just a gender issue. Such an understanding, however, appears to reproduce the problematic public/private dichotomy.

  81. 81.

    Brownmiller 1975, p 32.

  82. 82.

    See De Brouwer et al. 2013, p 4. See also Maxwell 2010, addressing the broader issue of militarized masculinity as an underlying cause of sexualized violence committed by soldiers. Similarly Niarchos 1995, pp 668–671. See also Rose 2015, conceptualizing intimate partner violence within the framework of crimes against humanity.

  83. 83.

    See Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2010, p 42; Leatherman 2011, pp 3–4; United Nations Security Council 2019a, para 2. See also Schwarz 2019, p 63.

  84. 84.

    See also MacKinnon 1994, p 8, stating that “these rapes [committed in the Yugoslav wars against Bosnian and Croatian women] are to everyday rape what the Holocaust was to everyday anti-semitism”. However, societies with higher levels of gender inequality are not necessarily more prone to sexual violence in conflicts, see Wood 2006, p 325.

  85. 85.

    Reports indicate the commission of up to 60,000 acts of rape, see Ellis 2007, p 226.

  86. 86.

    See Askin 2003b, p 511; Askin 2013, p 19; Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, p 15; Bensouda 2007, p 402; Coomaraswamy 2005, p 54; De Brouwer et al. 2013, pp 3–4; Ellis 2007, p 225; Leatherman 2011, p 4; MacKinnon 1994, p 8; Moshan 1998, p 158; Niarchos 1995, p 659; United Nations Secretary-General, Secretary-General’s Message on the International Day for the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict, 18 June 2017, https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2017-06-18/secretary-generals-message-international-day-elimination-sexual (accessed 24 October 2020); United Nations Security Council 2008, para 1; United Nations Security Council 2016, paras 8, 18; United Nations Security Council 2019a, para 10.

  87. 87.

    See Anderson 2010, p 247; Gaggioli 2014, p 519.

  88. 88.

    See Skjelsbaek 2001, p 213.

  89. 89.

    See United Nations Secretary-General, above n 86; United Nations Security Council 2016, paras 8, 18; United Nations Security Council 2019a, paras 8–30. Regarding the case of ISIS, see Ahram 2015.

  90. 90.

    See Anderson 2010, p 247; Durham 2012, p 264.

  91. 91.

    United Nations Security Council 2008.

  92. 92.

    United Nations Security Council 2000.

  93. 93.

    Namely ibid.; United Nations Security Council 2008; United Nations Security Council 2009a; United Nations Security Council 2009b; United Nations Security Council 2010; United Nations Security Council 2013a; United Nations Security Council 2013b; United Nations Security Council 2015; United Nations Security Council 2019b; United Nations Security Council 2019c. For an overview, see Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, The Resolutions, https://www.peacewomen.org/resolutions-texts-and-translations (accessed 24 October 2020).

  94. 94.

    United Nations Security Council 2009a, para 4.

  95. 95.

    United Nations Security Council 2018, para 22.

  96. 96.

    United Nations Security Council 2019b, para 5. It is worth noting, however, that this resolution was significantly watered down before its adoption, because the United States threatened to veto it. For example, the original draft included the establishment of a United Nations monitoring body, which was supposed to report on conflict-related sexual violence, see Gramer and Lynch, How a U.N. Bid to Prevent Sexual Violence Turned Into a Spat Over Abortion, Foreign Policy, 23 April 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/23/united-nations-bid-end-sexual-violence-rape-support-survivors-spat-trump-administration-sexual-reproductive-health-dispute-abortion-internal-state-department-cable/ (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.4.1.4.

  97. 97.

    Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2013. See also Steinl 2018.

  98. 98.

    See Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2010.

  99. 99.

    See ibid., pp 12–13.

  100. 100.

    Eriksson Baaz and Stern 2018.

  101. 101.

    See generally and with further references Henry 2014.

  102. 102.

    See Labenski 2019, pp 49–50. See also Engle 2005; Grey 2019, pp 87–88.

  103. 103.

    Dowds 2020, pp 124–126.

  104. 104.

    See Gardam and Jarvis 2001, pp 62–68.

  105. 105.

    See Möller 2001, p 284.

  106. 106.

    See Biehler 2015, pp 29–30; Green 2008, pp 26–29.

  107. 107.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1138.

  108. 108.

    Brownmiller 1975, p 33.

  109. 109.

    See Askin 1997, pp 20–21, 27, though also citing some dissenting voices at pp 22–23; Bensouda 2007, p 401; Schwarz 2019, pp 75–76.

  110. 110.

    See Askin 2013, p 21.

  111. 111.

    See Askin 1997, pp 20–21; De Brouwer 2005, p 4; Niarchos 1995, pp 659–660; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 426.

  112. 112.

    See Askin 1997, p 25; Askin 2013, p 22; Biehler 2015, pp 30–32; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 1139–1142.

  113. 113.

    See Bassiouni 2011, p 426; Meron 1993a, pp 92, 143–144; Möller 2001, p 281; Niarchos 1995, p 661.

  114. 114.

    See Meron 1993a, p 111; Niarchos 1995, p 661.

  115. 115.

    See Askin 2003a, p 299; Durham 2012, p 257; Schwarzenberger 1968, pp 462–466.

  116. 116.

    See Askin 1997, p 29; De Brouwer 2005, p 4; Kappler 2019, pp 125–126; Schwarz 2019, p 91.

  117. 117.

    See Askin 1997, pp 26–27; Askin 2003a, p 299; Biehler 2015, pp 36–37; Greve 2008, p 157; Meron 1993a, p 112.

  118. 118.

    See Green 2008, p 35.

  119. 119.

    See Askin 1997, p 30; Biehler 2015, p 37; Greve 2008, p 157; Niarchos 1995, p 661; Vöneky 2002, p 450.

  120. 120.

    See Askin 1997, p 34; De Brouwer 2005, p 5.

  121. 121.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 91.

  122. 122.

    See Askin 1997, p 34; Bassiouni 2011, p 427; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 56.

  123. 123.

    See Askin 2003a, p 299; Bassiouni 2011, p 427; Möller 2001, p 282. See generally Vöneky 2002.

  124. 124.

    See Askin 2003a, p 299; Niarchos 1995, pp 662, 672.

  125. 125.

    See Möller 2001, p 282.

  126. 126.

    Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Annex to Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, opened for signature 18 October 1907 (entered into force 26 January 1910), Article 46: “Family honour and rights, the lives of persons, and private property, as well as religious convictions and practice, must be respected. Private property cannot be confiscated.”

  127. 127.

    See Askin 1997, p 40; Askin 2003a, p 300; Bassiouni 2011, p 428; Durham 2012, p 258; Meron 1993b, p 425; Möller 2001, p 282; Schwarz 2019, p 92.

  128. 128.

    See Meron 1993b, p 425. See also Meron 1993a, pp 112–113, labelling the protection against rape in the Regulations as “indirect and partial”.

  129. 129.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 92.

  130. 130.

    Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135 (entered into force 21 October 1950).

  131. 131.

    See Schwarz 2019, pp 94–95.

  132. 132.

    Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (Geneva Convention IV).

  133. 133.

    Ibid., Article 4: “Persons protected by the Convention are those who, at a given moment and in any manner whatsoever, find themselves, in case of a conflict or occupation, in the hands of a Party to the conflict or Occupying Power of which they are not nationals.” See also Green 2008, pp 258–262; Schwarz 2019, p 97.

  134. 134.

    Protocol (I) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, opened for signature 12 December 1977, 1125 UNTS 3 (entered into force 7 December 1978).

  135. 135.

    See Adams 2013, p 114; International Committee of the Red Cross 1987, marginal nos 3147, 3151.

  136. 136.

    See also Grey 2019, p 74.

  137. 137.

    See Adams 2013, p 105; International Committee of the Red Cross 1958, p 206; Odio-Benito 2005, p 165.

  138. 138.

    See Durham 2012, p 259.

  139. 139.

    Protocol (II) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, opened for signature 12 December 1977, 1125 UNTS 609 (entered into force 7 December 1978).

  140. 140.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 95.

  141. 141.

    See Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, p 316; Möller 2001, p 283.

  142. 142.

    See Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, pp 315–316; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, pp 73–74; Niarchos 1995, pp 674–675; Schwarz 2019, pp 97–98.

  143. 143.

    See Schadendorf 2013; Schwarz 2019, p 98.

  144. 144.

    Geneva Conventions I–IV, above n 130 and n 132, common Article 3(1)(c), see Adams 2013, pp 110–111; Bassiouni 2011, pp 436–437; Biehler 2015, pp 89–91; Gaggioli 2014, pp 512–513; Peters 2007, p 257; Schwarz 2019, p 97.

  145. 145.

    See Adams 2013, pp 108–109; Bassiouni 2011, pp 429–432; Biehler 2015, pp 85–87; Copelon 1994, pp 249–252; Durham 2005, p 98; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 201; Meron 1993b, p 426; Peters 2007, p 258; Schwarz 2019, pp 98–99. For rape as torture, see particularly Čelebići 1998, above n 77, paras 475–497.

  146. 146.

    See Adams 2013, p 114.

  147. 147.

    See Askin 1997, p 34; Biehler 2015, p 50.

  148. 148.

    See Durham 2005, p 98; Gaggioli 2014, p 512; Lindsey 2005, pp 32–33. See also Peters 2007, pp 257–258, using the “updated” term dignity (“Würde”).

  149. 149.

    Lexico Oxford Dictionary, Honor, https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/honor (accessed 24 October 2020). See also Gardam and Charlesworth 2000, p 159; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, pp 64, 97.

  150. 150.

    See Adams 2013, p 102; Askin 2003a, p 304; Copelon 1994, p 249; Copelon 2000, p 221; Grewal 2010, p 63; Möller 2001, p 284; Niarchos 1995, p 674; Schwarz 2019, p 93; Seibert-Fohr 2008, p 163.

  151. 151.

    See Charlesworth and Chinkin 2000, p 314; Copelon 2000, p 221; Maxwell 2010, pp 109–110; Niarchos 1995, p 674; Schwarz 2019, p 93.

  152. 152.

    See Chappell 2016, p 38; Laverty 2018; Lembke and Foljanty 2012, p 271; Schwarz 2019, pp 93–94; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1281.

  153. 153.

    See Durham and O’Byrne 2010, pp 34–36.

  154. 154.

    See Peters 2007, p 257.

  155. 155.

    See Moshan 1998, p 180.

  156. 156.

    See also Schadendorf 2013; Schwarz 2019, pp 100–102. But see Biehler 2015, pp 112–115.

  157. 157.

    See Bassiouni and McCormick 1996, pp 3–4.

  158. 158.

    See Askin 1997, pp 42–43; Askin 2003a, p 300; De Brouwer 2005, p 5; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 58. The commission’s report is reprinted at Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties 1920.

  159. 159.

    See also Möller 2001, pp 284–285; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 8–10.

  160. 160.

    See Seibert-Fohr 2009, p 2.

  161. 161.

    See e.g. Askin 1997, pp 52–61, 71–73, 88–91, focusing on rape, forced prostitution, and forced sterilization. See also Biehler 2015, pp 55–60; Niarchos 1995, pp 663–666; Schwarz 2019, p 77.

  162. 162.

    See e.g. Askin 2013, p 32; Bensouda 2007, p 403.

  163. 163.

    See this chapter, Sect. 2.3.1. See also Grey 2019, pp 72–73.

  164. 164.

    Charter of the International Military Tribunal, Annex to the Agreement by the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Government of the United States of America, the Provisional Government of the French Republic and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis, 8 August 1945 (IMT Charter), Article 6(c); see Askin 1997, p 142; Bassiouni 2011, p 425; De Brouwer 2005, p 7; Möller 2001, p 285; Schwarz 2019, p 104; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1065.

  165. 165.

    IMT Charter, above n 164, Article 6(b); see Schwarz 2019, p 104.

  166. 166.

    See Adams 2013, pp 136–142; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 205.

  167. 167.

    See Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 205 However, the evidence was only documentary and no witnesses were called to testify in this regard, see Bassiouni 2011, p 426.

  168. 168.

    IMT Transcripts 1945–1946, above n 9, vol 6, pp 178, 404–407; vol 7, pp 179, 440, 442, 455–457, 467, 494; vol 8, p 54

  169. 169.

    Ibid., vol 2, p 139; vol 6, pp 170, 178; vol 7, p 548.

  170. 170.

    Ibid., vol 7, p 494.

  171. 171.

    See also Schwarz 2019, p 105.

  172. 172.

    See Niarchos 1995, pp 665, 677; Seibert-Fohr 2008, p 162.

  173. 173.

    The treatment of reproductive violence in the Nuremberg trial will be documented separately below, see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.1.

  174. 174.

    See Schwarz 2019, pp 105–106.

  175. 175.

    See ibid., p 106.

  176. 176.

    Boister and Cryer 2008, p 17.

  177. 177.

    Ibid., p 59: indictment, appendix D, sec. 1.

  178. 178.

    Ibid., p 60: indictment, appendix D, sec. 5(c).

  179. 179.

    Ibid., p 62: indictment appendix D, sec. 12.

  180. 180.

    See Askin 2013, pp 40–45 with further references. See also Adams 2013, p 209.

  181. 181.

    Boister and Cryer 2008, pp 603–604, 611–612, 627. See also Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 206, footnote 185, stating that it is possible to argue that all defendants convicted under counts 54 and 55 have also been found responsible for rape.

  182. 182.

    See generally Biehler 2015, pp 65–68; Brownmiller 1975, pp 57–62.

  183. 183.

    Boister and Cryer 2008, p 536.

  184. 184.

    Ibid., p 540.

  185. 185.

    See Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 207.

  186. 186.

    See Adams 2013, p 211; Schwarz 2019, p 107.

  187. 187.

    See Bensouda 2007, p 404; Biehler 2015, pp 75–76; Copelon 2000, pp 221–222; Durham 2012, p 259; Gardam and Jarvis 2001, pp 207–208; Grey 2019, p 77; Niarchos 1995, p 666. See also Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.3.

  188. 188.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 18. Initially, the body was named United Nations Commission for the Investigation of War Crimes.

  189. 189.

    United Nations Commission for the Investigation of War Crimes 1943, p 2.

  190. 190.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1943a, pp 1–2. The list is annexed to the meeting’s report at United Nations War Crimes Commission 1943b. See also generally Plesch et al. 2014.

  191. 191.

    See United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 15, p 200.

  192. 192.

    Ibid., vol 4, pp 1–96. See also Biehler 2015, pp 68–69.

  193. 193.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 14, pp 1–7. See also Biehler 2015, p 69; Möller 2001, pp 286–287.

  194. 194.

    United Nations War Crimes Commission 1947–1949, vol 13, pp 122–125, see also Askin 2013, p 45; Möller 2001, p 286.

  195. 195.

    See Plesch et al. 2014, pp 352–354.

  196. 196.

    Plesch 2017, p 16.

  197. 197.

    See ibid., pp 18–19.

  198. 198.

    See generally ibid., pp 11–45.

  199. 199.

    Control Council Law no. 10: Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes Against Peace and Against Humanity, 3 Official Gazette Control Council for Germany 50, 20 December 1945 (Control Council Law no. 10).

  200. 200.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 35.

  201. 201.

    Control Council Law no. 10, above n 199, Article II(1)(c).

  202. 202.

    See Adams 2013, p 207; Askin 2013, p 37; De Brouwer 2005, p 8; Niarchos 1995, p 677; Schwarz 2019, p 109; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 434. For references to reproductive violence, see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.2.

  203. 203.

    See also Möller 2001, p 287.

  204. 204.

    See generally Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 40–44.

  205. 205.

    United Nations General Assembly 1946.

  206. 206.

    United Nations General Assembly 1947: “The General Assembly […] directs the Commission to […] prepare a draft code of offences against the peace and security of mankind […].”

  207. 207.

    International Law Commission 1950.

  208. 208.

    Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, opened for signature 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 278 (entered into force 12 January 1951) (Genocide Convention).

  209. 209.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 864.

  210. 210.

    See De Brouwer 2005, pp 42–43.

  211. 211.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.3. See also Chap. 4, Sect. 4.3.4.

  212. 212.

    See De Brouwer 2005, pp 43–44.

  213. 213.

    ICTR, Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T (Akayesu 1998), para 731; see also Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 587; De Brouwer 2005, pp 51–58; Schabas 2009, pp 185–188.

  214. 214.

    ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 6(b), no. 1, footnote 3: “This conduct may include, but is not necessarily restricted to, acts of torture, rape, sexual violence or inhuman or degrading treatment.”

  215. 215.

    ICTR, Prosecutor v Clément Kayishema and Obed Ruzindana, Judgment, 21 May 1999, ICTR-95-1-T, para 116; Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 587; De Brouwer 2005, pp 56–58; Schwarz 2019, pp 151–155; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 900.

  216. 216.

    Bassiouni and Manikas 1996, p 587.

  217. 217.

    De Brouwer 2005, p 57.

  218. 218.

    International Law Commission 1951.

  219. 219.

    International Law Commission 1954.

  220. 220.

    International Law Commission 1951, Article 2(11); International Law Commission 1954, Article 2(12).

  221. 221.

    International Law Commission 1951, Article 2(10); International Law Commission 1954, Article 2(11).

  222. 222.

    United Nations General Assembly 1954.

  223. 223.

    United Nations General Assembly 1981.

  224. 224.

    International Law Commission 1991.

  225. 225.

    See Rayfuse 1997, pp 47–48.

  226. 226.

    International Law Commission 1991, Article 21.

  227. 227.

    Ibid., Article 22.

  228. 228.

    See this chapter, Sect. 2.4.4.1.

  229. 229.

    International Law Commission 1994, p 40.

  230. 230.

    International Law Commission 1996.

  231. 231.

    Ibid., p 50.

  232. 232.

    Ibid. On the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Violence Against Women, opened for signature 18 December 1979, 1249 UNTS 13 (entered into force 3 December 1981) (CEDAW Convention), see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.4.1.

  233. 233.

    See Grey 2019, p 102.

  234. 234.

    International Law Commission 1996, Article 20(d), (f)(v).

  235. 235.

    See this chapter, Sect. 2.3.3.

  236. 236.

    International Law Commission 1996, p 55.

  237. 237.

    United Nations Security Council 1993; United Nations Security Council 1994.

  238. 238.

    Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 45; see also Werle 1997, p 814.

  239. 239.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 48.

  240. 240.

    For an overview of the documented crimes, see De Brouwer 2005, pp 9–14.

  241. 241.

    See also Schwarz 2019, p 124.

  242. 242.

    See generally Grey 2019, pp 79–85.

  243. 243.

    For the historical background of the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, see generally Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 243–244.

  244. 244.

    See Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights 1993, paras 82–88.

  245. 245.

    See De Brouwer 2005, p 9.

  246. 246.

    See Allen 1996, pp 65–66; Commission of Experts 1994, para 248; Stiglmayer 1993, pp 149–169.

  247. 247.

    United Nations Security Council 1993, preamble para 3.

  248. 248.

    Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, adopted 25 May 1993 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 827, Article 5(g).

  249. 249.

    See Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal no 1282.

  250. 250.

    See this chapter, Sect. 2.4.2.3.

  251. 251.

    See particularly Green et al. 1994.

  252. 252.

    See Gardam and Jarvis 2001, pp 212–213 with further references.

  253. 253.

    International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Crimes of Sexual Violence: In Numbers, September 2016, https://www.icty.org/en/features/crimes-sexual-violence/in-numbers (accessed 24 October 2020).

  254. 254.

    See generally Adams 2013, pp 218–265.

  255. 255.

    For a summary, see International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Crimes of Sexual Violence: Landmark Cases, https://www.icty.org/en/features/crimes-sexual-violence/landmark-cases (accessed 24 October 2020).

  256. 256.

    ICTY, Prosecutor v Duško Tadić, Judgment, 7 May 1997, IT-94-1-T; ICTY, Prosecutor v Duško Tadić, Appeals Judgment, 15 July 1999, IT-94-1-A; see also Askin 1999, pp 100–105; De Brouwer 2005, pp 481–482; Möller 2001, p 289.

  257. 257.

    Čelebići 1998, above n 77; ICTY, Prosecutor v Zejnil Delalić, Zdravko Mucić, Hazim Delić and Esad Landžo, Appeals Judgment, 20 February 2001, IT-96-21-A; see also Askin 2003a, pp 321–327; De Brouwer 2005, pp 482–483; Greve 2008, pp 178–187; Odio-Benito 2005, pp 170–171; Schwarz 2019, pp 121–122.

  258. 258.

    ICTY, Prosecutor v Anto Furundžija, Judgment, 10 December 1998, IT-95-17/1-T; ICTY, Prosecutor v Anto Furundžija, Appeals Judgment, 21 July 2000, IT-95-17/1-A; see also Askin 2003a, pp 327–332; Biehler 2015, pp 168–172; De Brouwer 2005, p 484; Greve 2008, pp 194–199; Möller 2001, pp 291–292; Odio-Benito 2005, pp 168–169.

  259. 259.

    ICTY, Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač and Zoran Vuković, Judgment, 22 February 2001, IT-96-23-T and IT-96-23/1-T; ICTY, Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač and Zoran Vuković, Appeals Judgment, 12 June 2002, IT-96-23-A and IT-96-23/1-A; see also Askin 2003a, pp 333–341; Biehler 2015, pp 173–177; De Brouwer 2005, pp 485–487; Greve 2008, pp 251–261; Odio-Benito 2005, pp 169–170.

  260. 260.

    For the historical background of the Rwandan genocide, see generally Werle and Vormbaum 2018, p 177.

  261. 261.

    United Nations Economic and Social Council 1996, para 16.

  262. 262.

    Ibid.

  263. 263.

    Ibid., para 18.

  264. 264.

    Statute for the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, adopted 8 November 1994 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 955 (ICTR Statute), Article 3(g).

  265. 265.

    Ibid., Article 4(e).

  266. 266.

    See Schwarz 2019, p 113; Werle and Jeßberger 2020, marginal nos 1281–1282.

  267. 267.

    Office of the Prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 2014, paras 10–11.

  268. 268.

    Schwarz 2019, p 124.

  269. 269.

    Akayesu 1998, above n 213; ICTR, Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu, Appeals Judgment, 1 June 2001, ICTR-96-4-A; see this chapter, Sect. 2.4.3.2. See also Askin 2003a, pp 318–321; Biehler 2015, pp 164–167; Greve 2008, pp 227–239; Odio-Benito 2005, pp 167–168; Schwarz 2019, pp 116–120; Seibert-Fohr 2008, pp 166–169; Vest and Sutter 2014, marginal no 438.

  270. 270.

    See Copelon 2000, pp 223–228; Ellis 2007, p 232; Grey and Chappell 2019, pp 223–225.

  271. 271.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 July 2002) (ICC Statute), Articles 7(1)(g), 8(2)(b)(xxii), 8(2)(e)(vi).

  272. 272.

    ICC Elements of Crimes, Article (7)(1)(g)-1, no. 1, footnote 15; Article 8(2)(b)(xxii)-1, no. 1, footnote 50; art 8(2)(e)(vi)-1, no. 1, footnote 63.

  273. 273.

    ICC Statute, above n 271, Article 7(1)(g): “any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity”, Article 8(2)(b)(xxii): “any other form of sexual violence also constituting a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions”, Article 8(2)(e)(vi): “any other form of sexual violence also constituting a serious violation of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions”.

  274. 274.

    Ibid., Articles 7(1)(c), 7(2)(c).

  275. 275.

    Ibid., Article 7(1)(h).

  276. 276.

    See Grey et al. 2019; Kappler 2019, pp 132–140; Schwarz 2019, pp 369–408.

  277. 277.

    ICC Statute, above n 271, Article 6; Genocide Convention, above n 208, Article II.

  278. 278.

    See Steains 1999, p 363.

  279. 279.

    ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 6(b), no. 1, footnote 3. The proposed African Criminal Court’s Statute would be the first international instrument to specifically list “acts of rape or any other form of sexual violence” as genocidal acts, Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, opened for signature 27 June 2014 (Malabo Protocol), Article 28B(f); see Ambos 2017, pp 39–40.

  280. 280.

    ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence, rule 70(a)–(c).

  281. 281.

    Ibid., rule 70(d).

  282. 282.

    Ibid., rule 71.

  283. 283.

    See e.g. ibid., rules 16(1)(d), 17(2)(b)(iii), 72, 86, 88(1), 88(5), 112(4).

  284. 284.

    Ibid., rules 17(2)(a)(iv), 18(d).

  285. 285.

    See Grey 2019, p 113.

  286. 286.

    See Oosterveld 2005, p 55; Schwarz 2019, p 38.

  287. 287.

    See Oosterveld 2005, pp 58–66.

  288. 288.

    See Bedont 1999, p 185; deGuzman 2016, marginal nos 49–52.

  289. 289.

    See Kappler 2019, p 172.

  290. 290.

    See Chappell 2016, pp 44–46; Glasius 2006, pp 86–87; Grey 2019, pp 40–42; Oosterveld 2005, pp 58–66; Schwarz 2019, pp 38–39.

  291. 291.

    See Oosterveld 2005, pp 71–81 with further references. See also Global Justice Center 2018, pp 11–14.

  292. 292.

    See Kappler 2019, pp 159–160; Schwarz 2019, p 40.

  293. 293.

    International Law Commission 2019.

  294. 294.

    See e.g. Global Justice Center 2018, pp 11–14.

  295. 295.

    International Law Commission 2019, paras 41–42. On these developments, see generally Grey et al. 2019, pp 959–961.

  296. 296.

    Grey et al. 2019, p 961.

  297. 297.

    See Bedont 1999, p 187; Kappler 2019, pp 160–169; Schwarz 2019, pp 39–40. See particularly Oosterveld 2005, p 82, pointing out and criticizing the “constructive ambiguity” of the gender definition in Article 7(3) of the ICC Statute. See also Oosterveld 2014.

  298. 298.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, p 3. See also Oosterveld 2018, pp 450–452.

  299. 299.

    Goldstone 2002, p 285.

  300. 300.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment, 14 March 2012, ICC-01/04-01/06; ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Appeals Judgment, 1 December 2014, ICC-01/04-01/06 A 5.

  301. 301.

    See Chappell 2016, p 111; Grey 2019, pp 130–131; Hayes 2016, p 11.

  302. 302.

    See generally Chappell 2016, pp 110–114; Grey 2019, pp 128–142. Besides sexual violence, the trial also produced evidence of reproductive violence in the form of forced abortions, which was not part of the charges and thus did not appear in the judgment, see ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Transcript, 18 March 2009, ICC-01/04-01/06-T-150-Red-ENG CT WT, pp 35–36; see also Grey 2019, p 136; Grey forthcoming, p 2.

  303. 303.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Sentencing Decision, 10 July 2012, ICC-01/04-01/06, para 60.

  304. 304.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Callixte Mbarushimana, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 16 December 2011, ICC-01/04-01/10.

  305. 305.

    ICC, Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Prosecution’s Application Under Article 58, 20 August 2010, ICC-01/04, p 17.

  306. 306.

    Hayes 2016, p 28.

  307. 307.

    See Chappell 2016, p 122; Grey 2019, pp 164–165.

  308. 308.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 30 September 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07, paras 339–354.

  309. 309.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Germain Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014, ICC-01/04-01/07, paras 1663–1664.

  310. 310.

    Grey 2019, p 272; Stahn 2014, p 821.

  311. 311.

    Bemba 2016, above n 19.

  312. 312.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Appeals Judgment, 8 June 2018, ICC-01/05-01/08 A.

  313. 313.

    On “success” in prosecuting gender-based crimes, see Grey 2019, pp 30–36.

  314. 314.

    See also Chappell 2016, pp 104–106; Schwarz 2019, p 24; Steinl 2018.

  315. 315.

    For an overview on the ICC’s cases dealing with sexualized and gender-based violence, see Grey 2019, pp 123–246.

  316. 316.

    Women’s Initiatives for Gender Justice 2018, p 42.

  317. 317.

    Ntaganda 2019, above n 19. See generally Grey 2019, pp 142–148.

  318. 318.

    Ntaganda 2019, above n 19, paras 964–986.

  319. 319.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Judgment on the Appeal of Mr Ntaganda Against the “Second Decision on the Defence’s Challenge to the Jurisdiction of the Court in Respect of Counts 6 and 9”, 15 June 2017, ICC-01/04-02/06 OA5.

  320. 320.

    See Heller 2017; Kenny and McDermott 2019, pp 945–960.

  321. 321.

    See also Frivet 2019, pp 64–66; Grey 2019, pp 274–278; Longobardo 2019.

  322. 322.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Judgment, 4 February 2021, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2021); ICC, Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 23 March 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2016), paras 86–140.

  323. 323.

    See Grey 2019, p 171, highlighting that the case concerns several non-sexualized gender-based crimes, namely acts of forced pregnancy and forced marriage.

  324. 324.

    ICC, Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Decision on the Confirmation of the Charges, 30 September 2019, ICC-01/12-01/18, counts 8–13.

  325. 325.

    See Grey et al. 2019, pp 975–977; Grey 2019, pp 278–283. See also Hall et al. 2016, marginal no 83; Kappler 2019, pp 137–140.

  326. 326.

    ICC, Situation in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Prosecutor’s Request for Authorisation of an Investigation, 20 November 2017, ICC-02/17, paras 115–121.

  327. 327.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2019, paras 186–187.

  328. 328.

    The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court 2014, para 73.

  329. 329.

    Ibid., para 72.

  330. 330.

    For the historical background, see generally Werle and Vormbaum 2018, pp 181–182.

  331. 331.

    Agreement Between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone, 2178 UNTS 137, 16 January 2002 (SCSL Statute).

  332. 332.

    Ibid., Article 2(g).

  333. 333.

    Ibid., Article 3(e).

  334. 334.

    Ibid., Article 4; see also Schwarz 2019, p 127.

  335. 335.

    SCSL Statute, above n 331, Article 2(h).

  336. 336.

    See Oosterveld 2009, p 408.

  337. 337.

    Charles Taylor; Issa Hassan Sesay, Morris Kallon, Augustine Gbao (so-called RUF case); Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara, Santigie Borbor Kanu (so-called AFRC case). Two other accused died, one currently remains at large.

  338. 338.

    Issa Hassan Sesay, Morris Kallon, Augustine Gbao (RUF case). The three accused in the AFRC case were acquitted of the charge of forced marriage.

  339. 339.

    Special Court for Sierra Leone, Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu, Judgment, 20 June 2007, SCSL-04-16-T, para 713.

  340. 340.

    Special Court for Sierra Leone, Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu, Appeals Judgment, 22 February 2008, SCSL-2004-16-A, paras 175–203; see also Oosterveld 2009, pp 413–418; Schwarz 2019, pp 127–128, 358–360.

  341. 341.

    Ongwen 2021, above n 322, paras 2748–2752; ICC, Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Warrant of Arrest, 27 March 2018, ICC-01/12-01/18.

  342. 342.

    See Oosterveld 2012, p 21.

  343. 343.

    Special Court for Sierra Leone, Prosecutor v Charles Ghankay Taylor, Judgment, 18 May 2012, SCSL-03-01-T, paras 424–430.

  344. 344.

    Statute of the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in the Courts of Dili, Regulation no. 2000/15 on the Establishment of Panels With Exclusive Jurisdiction Over Serious Criminal Offences, UN Doc. UNTAET/REG/2000/15, 6 June 2000, Section 5.1(g) and (h) (crimes against humanity), Section 6.1(b)(xxii) and (e)(vi) (war crimes). The Special Panels concluded their operations in 2005.

  345. 345.

    Malabo Protocol, above n 279, Article 28C(1)(g) and (h) (crimes against humanity), Article 28D(b)(xxiii) and (e)(vi) (war crimes). The Malabo Protocol has not yet received any ratifications and has thus not entered into force.

  346. 346.

    Law no. 05/L-053 by the Assembly of Republic of Kosovo on Specialist Chambers and Specialist Prosecutor’s Office, 3 August 2015, Article 13(1)(g) (crimes against humanity), Article 14(1)(b)(xxii) and (d)(vi) (war crimes). Somewhat curiously, enforced sterilization does appear in the war crimes provisions, but not as a crime against humanity.

  347. 347.

    Accord Entre le Gouvernement de la République du Sénégal et l’Union Africaine sur la Création de Chambres Africaines Extraordinaires au Sein des Juridictions Sénégalaises, 22 August 2012, Article 6(a). The Statute also does not extend to persecution, including gender-based persecution.

  348. 348.

    Ibid., Article 7(2)(e).

  349. 349.

    Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, 10 August 2001, with inclusion of amendments as promulgated on 27 October 2004, NS/RKM/1004/006, Article 5.

  350. 350.

    See Elander 2016, pp 166–167; Oosterveld and Sellers 2016; Schwarz 2019, pp 128–131; Studzinsky 2013.

  351. 351.

    CEDAW Convention, above n 232.

  352. 352.

    See Askin 1997, p 232; McQuigg 2018, pp 306–307.

  353. 353.

    See De Brouwer et al. 2013, p 4, footnote 2.

  354. 354.

    United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1993, para 1, repeated and expanded in United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 2017. See also Gardam and Jarvis 2001, p 146; McQuigg 2018, pp 307–308.

  355. 355.

    See Askin 1997, p 234; Otto 2019, p 360 (see also pp 360–363 on the other UN treaty bodies); see also McQuigg 2018, p 309 (calling for the adoption of a specific United Nations treaty on violence against women).

  356. 356.

    Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, opened for signature 11 May 2011, CETS no. 210 (entered into force 1 August 2014) (Istanbul Convention).

  357. 357.

    Ibid., Article 36.

  358. 358.

    Ibid., Article 37.

  359. 359.

    Ibid., Article 39.

  360. 360.

    Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women, opened for signature 9 June 1994, Organization of American States A-61 (entered into force 3 March 1995). See also Askin 1997, p 238.

  361. 361.

    Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, opened for signature 11 July 2003 (entered into force 25 November 2005), specifically referring to the protection of women in armed conflicts, e.g. against all forms of violence, in Article 11.

  362. 362.

    See this chapter, Sect. 2.2.1.2.

  363. 363.

    E.g., European Convention on Human Rights, opened for signature 4 November 1950, ETS no. 005 (entered into force 3 September 1953), Article 3; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 19 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976), Article 7; United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, opened for signature 10 December 1984, 1465 UNTS 85 (entered into force 26 June 1987).

  364. 364.

    See Gaggioli 2014, p 521.

  365. 365.

    United Nations General Assembly 1993. See also Askin 1997, pp 237–238; Otto 2019, p 359.

  366. 366.

    Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 25 June 1993 (Vienna Declaration), I para 18, II para 38.

  367. 367.

    Ibid., II para 38. See also ibid., I para 28, condemning systematic rape in wars.

  368. 368.

    Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, 15 September 1995 (Beijing Declaration), Declaration para 29, Platform for Action paras 112–130.

  369. 369.

    Ibid., Platform for Action paras 131–149.

  370. 370.

    Ibid., Platform for Action para 114.

  371. 371.

    Ibid., Platform for Action para 115.

  372. 372.

    Ibid., Platform for Action para 124.

  373. 373.

    Beijing+5, 9 June 2000, Further Actions and Initiatives to Implement the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action para 19.

  374. 374.

    United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1995, para 5. Similar provisions with slight textual deviations are also present in the subsequent resolutions: United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1996, para 5; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1997, para 4; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1998, para 4; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1999, paras 5–6; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2001, para 11; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2002, para 15; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2003, para 15; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2004, para 16; United Nations Commission on Human Rights 2005, para 18.

  375. 375.

    United Nations Human Rights Council 2010, preamble para 12.

  376. 376.

    United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1994.

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Altunjan, T. (2021). The Foundation: Sexualized Violence in International Law. In: Reproductive Violence and International Criminal Law. International Criminal Justice Series, vol 29. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-451-8_2

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